Reference: Tables, Codes, and Further Reading

14.1 How to use this volume

The thirteen volumes before this one told the story of the resistor: what it is, where its ohms come from, how it is built, how it fails, and where the interesting parts hide. This one is the lookup apparatus that story leaves behind. It is deliberately thin on prose and thick on tables, arranged so that a working engineer can find a number, decode a marking, or check a formula without reading a paragraph to get there. Everything here has been reproduced against the governing standards — IEC 60062 for markings, IEC 60063 for the preferred-value series, IEC 60115 for the parts themselves — and against manufacturer literature. Where a value is a historical convention rather than a rounding (the E-series is riddled with these), the convention is what appears; do not re-derive these tables by rounding a logarithm, because the standards do not.

Each section opens with a sentence or two of orientation and then hands over to the table. The figures are reference cards meant to be printed and pinned over a bench. Cross-references point back into the narrative volumes where a term is developed at length.

Glossary

The vocabulary of the whole dive, alphabetised. Terms in bold within a definition have their own entry.

Table 1 — Glossary

Term	Definition
Bulk-metal foil	Precision resistor technology using a cold-rolled resistance-alloy foil cemented to a substrate; the substrate’s expansion is engineered to cancel the foil’s TCR, giving the lowest tempco and best long-term stability of any type (Vol 8).
Derating	The deliberate operation of a part below its rated maximum — chiefly power — as ambient temperature rises, following the manufacturer’s derating curve to zero at the maximum body temperature (Vol 9).
E-series	The IEC 60063 geometric ladders of preferred values (E6, E12, E24, E48, E96, E192), spaced so their tolerance bands just meet across a decade.
Excess noise	Current-dependent 1/f noise generated above the unavoidable Johnson noise, arising from the granular conduction of composition and thick-film elements; quoted in µV per volt applied, or dB (Vol 3).
Gauge factor	For a strain gauge, the fractional change in resistance per unit strain, (ΔR/R)/ε; about 2 for a metal-foil gauge (Vol 11).
Johnson–Nyquist noise	The unavoidable thermal noise voltage of any resistance, Vn = √(4kTRB), independent of material or current; the noise floor every resistor shares (Vol 3).
Kelvin (4-wire) connection	A measurement wiring that carries current through one pair of leads and senses voltage through a separate pair, removing lead and contact resistance from the reading; the basis of the sense terminals on precision shunts (Vols 8, 11).
Multiplier	The power-of-ten scaling band or letter in a marking, applied to the significant figures to give the value (Vols 6, this vol).
Parasitics	The unwanted reactive elements of a real resistor — series inductance L and shunt capacitance C — that make its impedance deviate from R at high frequency (Vol 3).
Preferred value	One of the standardised nominal resistances of an E-series; stocking only these values covers every decade with minimum overlap.
PTC / NTC	Positive / negative temperature coefficient: resistance that rises / falls with temperature. Metals are PTC; carbon, semiconductors, and thermistors can be either (Vols 2, 11).
Resistance (R)	The ratio of voltage across a component to current through it, V/I, in ohms (Ω); the defining property (Vol 1).
Resistivity (ρ)	The material’s own resistance, independent of shape, in Ω·m; R = ρL/A (Vol 2).
Self-resonant frequency (SRF)	The frequency at which a resistor’s series L and shunt C resonate; above it the part no longer behaves as a resistance (Vol 3).
Sheet resistance (Rs)	The resistance of a square of thin film, ρ/t, in ohms per square (Ω/□); geometry-independent for any square, the unit in which film resistors are designed and trimmed (Vol 2).
Shunt	A low-value, high-accuracy resistor placed in a current path so the voltage across it measures the current; usually Kelvin-connected (Vol 11).
Stability	The permanence of the value over time, load, humidity, and thermal cycling, quoted as a maximum drift (e.g. ±0.25% over 1000 h at rated load); distinct from tolerance, which is the value at manufacture (Vol 9).
Temperature coefficient (TCR)	The fractional change of resistance per degree, in ppm/°C; the headline spec separating precision from commodity parts (Vol 3).
Tolerance	The permitted deviation of the value from nominal at manufacture, as a percentage; marked by band, letter, or the implied E-series (Vols 3, 6).
Voltage coefficient (VCR)	The fractional change of resistance per volt applied, in ppm/V; a nonlinearity of high-value thick-film and composition parts (Vol 3).
Wirewound	A resistor made of resistance wire wound on a former; the type for high power and high precision, but with the most series inductance (Vol 8).

14.2 Color-code reference

The four-, five-, and six-band axial code of IEC 60062. Read from the band nearest an end. The first bands are significant figures, the next is the multiplier, then tolerance, and on a six-band part a final temperature-coefficient band. On a four-band part the first two bands are digits; on five- and six-band parts the first three are. The digit colours (black = 0 through white = 9) are the spine of the whole system and are identical in every column that carries a digit.

Table 2 — Color-code reference

Colour	Digit	Multiplier	Tolerance	Tempco (ppm/°C)
Black	0	×1	—	—
Brown	1	×10	±1%	100
Red	2	×100	±2%	50
Orange	3	×1 000	—	15
Yellow	4	×10 000	—	25
Green	5	×100 000	±0.5%	20
Blue	6	×1 000 000	±0.25%	10
Violet	7	×10 000 000	±0.1%	5
Grey	8	×100 000 000	±0.05%	1
White	9	×1 000 000 000	—	—
Gold	—	×0.1	±5%	—
Silver	—	×0.01	±10%	—
None	—	—	±20%	—

Worked example: a five-band part banded brown–black–black–brown–brown reads 1, 0, 0 as significant figures = 100, ×10 multiplier = 1 000, tolerance brown = ±1%, i.e. 1.00 kΩ ±1%. The same three digits with a red fourth band (×100) would be 10.0 kΩ. The gold and silver multipliers exist to reach sub-ohm and single-ohm values (a gold third band on brown–black is 1.0 Ω), and the same two colours reappear as the ±5% and ±10% tolerances that dominate general-purpose stock.

14.3 SMD-code reference

Chip resistors are too small for bands, so the value is printed as digits (on parts down to 0805; the 0603 and smaller are usually blank). Three coding schemes are in use, all defined or referenced by IEC 60062.

Three-digit code (E24, ±5%). Two significant figures followed by a power-of-ten multiplier digit. 472 = 47 × 10² = 4.7 kΩ. 100 = 10 × 10⁰ = 10 Ω. 000 or 0 marks a zero-ohm jumper.

Four-digit code (E96/E48, ±1%). Three significant figures followed by one multiplier digit. 4702 = 470 × 10² = 47 kΩ. 1000 = 100 × 10⁰ = 100 Ω.

R-notation (values below 10 Ω, either scheme). The letter R marks the decimal point and replaces the multiplier. 4R7 = 4.7 Ω; R47 = 0.47 Ω; 0R10 = 0.10 Ω. On very-low-value sense resistors an L or M may be substituted for milliohm markings in some ranges.

EIA-96 code (1% chips). Precision chips too small for four digits use a two-digit code plus a letter: the two digits index the E96 value in the table below; the letter is a multiplier. 01C = 100 × 100 = 10 kΩ. 68X = 499 × 0.1 = 49.9 Ω.

14.3.1 EIA-96 letter multipliers

Table 3 — EIA-96 letter multipliers

Letter	Multiplier		Letter	Multiplier
Z	×0.001		B or H	×10
Y or R	×0.01		C	×100
X or S	×0.1		D	×1 000
A	×1		E	×10 000
			F	×100 000

14.3.2 EIA-96 code → value (all 96 codes)

Table 4 — EIA-96 code → value (all 96 codes)

Code	Val	Code	Val	Code	Val	Code	Val
01	100	25	178	49	316	73	562
02	102	26	182	50	324	74	576
03	105	27	187	51	332	75	590
04	107	28	191	52	340	76	604
05	110	29	196	53	348	77	619
06	113	30	200	54	357	78	634
07	115	31	205	55	365	79	649
08	118	32	210	56	374	80	665
09	121	33	215	57	383	81	681
10	124	34	221	58	392	82	698
11	127	35	226	59	402	83	715
12	130	36	232	60	412	84	732
13	133	37	237	61	422	85	750
14	137	38	243	62	432	86	768
15	140	39	249	63	442	87	787
16	143	40	255	64	453	88	806
17	147	41	261	65	464	89	825
18	150	42	267	66	475	90	845
19	154	43	274	67	487	91	866
20	158	44	280	68	499	92	887
21	162	45	287	69	511	93	909
22	165	46	294	70	523	94	931
23	169	47	301	71	536	95	953
24	174	48	309	72	549	96	976

14.4 E-series reference

The preferred values of IEC 60063. Each series divides a decade into a geometric ladder whose spacing matches a tolerance grade: E6 for ±20%, E12 for ±10%, E24 for ±5%, E48 for ±2%, E96 for ±1%, E192 for ±0.5% and tighter. The values listed below are the one-decade set; multiply by any power of ten for other decades (1.5 → 15, 150, 1.5 k, and so on).

14.4.1 E6 (±20%) and E12 (±10%)

Table 5 — E6 (±20%) and E12 (±10%)

E6	1.0	1.5	2.2	3.3	4.7	6.8
E12	1.0, 1.2	1.5, 1.8	2.2, 2.7	3.3, 3.9	4.7, 5.6	6.8, 8.2

14.4.2 E24 (±5%)

Table 6 — E24 (±5%)

1.0	1.1	1.2	1.3	1.5	1.6	1.8	2.0	2.2	2.4	2.7	3.0
3.3	3.6	3.9	4.3	4.7	5.1	5.6	6.2	6.8	7.5	8.2	9.1

14.4.3 E48 (±2%)

Table 7 — E48 (±2%)

1.00	1.05	1.10	1.15	1.21	1.27	1.33	1.40
1.47	1.54	1.62	1.69	1.78	1.87	1.96	2.05
2.15	2.26	2.37	2.49	2.61	2.74	2.87	3.01
3.16	3.32	3.48	3.65	3.83	4.02	4.22	4.42
4.64	4.87	5.11	5.36	5.62	5.90	6.19	6.49
6.81	7.15	7.50	7.87	8.25	8.66	9.09	9.53

14.4.4 E96 (±1%)

Table 8 — E96 (±1%)

1.00	1.02	1.05	1.07	1.10	1.13	1.15	1.18
1.21	1.24	1.27	1.30	1.33	1.37	1.40	1.43
1.47	1.50	1.54	1.58	1.62	1.65	1.69	1.74
1.78	1.82	1.87	1.91	1.96	2.00	2.05	2.10
2.15	2.21	2.26	2.32	2.37	2.43	2.49	2.55
2.61	2.67	2.74	2.80	2.87	2.94	3.01	3.09
3.16	3.24	3.32	3.40	3.48	3.57	3.65	3.74
3.83	3.92	4.02	4.12	4.22	4.32	4.42	4.53
4.64	4.75	4.87	4.99	5.11	5.23	5.36	5.49
5.62	5.76	5.90	6.04	6.19	6.34	6.49	6.65
6.81	6.98	7.15	7.32	7.50	7.68	7.87	8.06
8.25	8.45	8.66	8.87	9.09	9.31	9.53	9.76

E192 (±0.5%, ±0.25%, ±0.1%) adds a further 96 interleaved values to make 192 per decade; it is not reproduced in full here — it is the E96 set with an intermediate value inserted between each pair, and is used only for the highest-precision metal-film and foil parts. Its first values run 1.00, 1.01, 1.02, 1.04, 1.05, 1.06, 1.07, 1.09, …

14.5 Tolerance and temperature-coefficient letter codes

On body-printed and datasheet part numbers the tolerance and tempco are given as single letters rather than bands. The tolerance set is the IEC 60062 standard; the tempco letters follow the common industry (EIA) assignment used by the major film-resistor makers.

Table 9 — Tolerance and temperature-coefficient letter codes

Tolerance letter	Tolerance		Tempco letter	TCR (ppm/°C)
B	±0.1%		K	±250
C	±0.25%		J	±100
D	±0.5%		H	±50
F	±1%		G	±30
G	±2%		F	±25
J	±5%		E	±15
K	±10%		D	±10
M	±20%		C	±5

Two traps travel with these. First, the letters G, J, and K appear in both columns with different meanings — G is ±2% tolerance but ±30 ppm/°C tempco — so context (which field of the part number) decides. Second, older MIL and some Asian schemes assign the tempco letters differently; always confirm against the specific datasheet rather than assuming the table above.

14.6 Standard power ratings and SMD sizes

Through-hole resistors come in a fixed ladder of power ratings; the value quoted is the maximum continuous dissipation at a stated ambient (usually 70 °C), and must be derated above it (Vol 9). Surface-mount chips are specified by a size code that is simultaneously a physical footprint and, by convention, a power rating.

Table 10 — Standard power ratings and SMD sizes

Rating	Watts	Typical body / use
⅒ W	0.10	small signal, axial and 0805 chip
⅛ W	0.125	most common through-hole signal part
¼ W	0.25	general-purpose workhorse
½ W	0.50	higher-dissipation signal
1 W	1.0	small power
2 W	2.0	power, often metal-oxide film
3 W, 5 W, 10 W, 25 W	3–25	wirewound, aluminium-clad chassis-mount

14.6.1 SMD chip sizes → dimensions → power

The size code is the two body dimensions. Imperial codes give length and width in hundredths of an inch; metric codes give the same in tenths of a millimetre. Power ratings are the industry-typical values and vary by series and technology.

Table 11 — SMD chip sizes → dimensions → power

Imperial	Metric	L × W (mm)	Typical power
0201	0603	0.6 × 0.3	1/20 W (0.05 W)
0402	1005	1.0 × 0.5	1/16 W (0.063 W)
0603	1608	1.6 × 0.8	1/10 W (0.10 W)
0805	2012	2.0 × 1.25	1/8 W (0.125 W)
1206	3216	3.2 × 1.6	1/4 W (0.25 W)
1210	3225	3.2 × 2.5	1/3–1/2 W
2010	5025	5.0 × 2.5	1/2–3/4 W
2512	6432	6.4 × 3.2	1 W

14.7 Resistivity and material temperature coefficient

The material constants underlying every resistor and every wire, at 20 °C. Resistivity ρ sets how many ohms a given geometry yields (R = ρL/A); the material TCR sets how far the value drifts with temperature. Conductors sit near 10⁻⁸ Ω·m with large positive TCR; the resistance alloys sit two decades higher with TCR tuned toward zero — the whole point of alloying (Vol 2).

Table 12 — Resistivity and material temperature coefficient

Material	ρ at 20 °C (Ω·m)	Material TCR (ppm/°C)	Role
Silver	1.59 × 10⁻⁸	+3 800	best metallic conductor
Copper	1.68 × 10⁻⁸	+3 900	the workhorse conductor
Gold	2.44 × 10⁻⁸	+3 400	corrosion-proof contacts
Aluminium	2.65 × 10⁻⁸	+4 300	light-weight conductor
Tungsten	5.6 × 10⁻⁸	+4 500	lamp filaments
Nichrome (Ni80/Cr20)	~1.0–1.5 × 10⁻⁶	+100 to +400	heaters, wirewound resistors
Constantan (Cu55/Ni45)	~4.9 × 10⁻⁷	±20	near-zero-tempco alloy, strain gauges
Manganin (Cu/Mn/Ni)	~4.8 × 10⁻⁷	±15	precision shunts, standards
Evanohm (Ni/Cr/Al/Cu)	~1.3 × 10⁻⁶	±5	finest wirewound and foil parts
Carbon (graphite, in-plane)	~3–60 × 10⁻⁵	−200 to −800	composition and carbon-film elements

14.8 Master specs by resistor type

The consolidated comparison of the fixed-resistor families treated in Volumes 7 and 8, at typical commercial grades. Every figure is representative, not a limit; premium sub-grades of each type reach well beyond the numbers shown.

Table 13 — Master specs by resistor type

Type	Tolerance	TCR (ppm/°C)	Power range	Noise	Stability	Rel. cost	Where it wins
Carbon composition	±5 to ±20%	−800 to +1000	⅛–2 W	high	poor (drift, humidity)	low	pulse/surge energy handling
Carbon film	±2 to ±5%	−200 to −500	⅛–2 W	moderate	fair	lowest	legacy general purpose
Metal film (thin)	±0.1 to ±1%	±5 to ±100	⅒–1 W	low	good	moderate	precision signal work
Metal-oxide film	±1 to ±5%	±300	½–5 W	moderate	good	low	higher-temperature power
Thick film (chip)	±1 to ±5%	±100 to ±250	1/20–1 W	moderate–high	good	lowest (SMD)	volume SMD, everything
Thin film (chip)	±0.01 to ±0.5%	±5 to ±50	1/20–½ W	low	very good	high	precision SMD, ratio nets
Wirewound (power)	±1 to ±5%	±20 to ±300	1–1000 W	very low	good	moderate	high power, low inductance grades
Wirewound (precision)	±0.01 to ±0.1%	±3 to ±10	¼–2 W	very low	excellent	high	standards, instrumentation
Bulk-metal foil	±0.001 to ±0.05%	±0.2 to ±2	⅒–½ W	very low	best available	highest	metrology, reference dividers

14.9 Formula cheat-sheet

The equations used across the dive, gathered in one place. Symbols: V volts, I amps, R ohms, P watts, k Boltzmann’s constant 1.38 × 10⁻²³ J/K, T temperature in kelvin, B noise bandwidth in hertz, C capacitance in farads, t time in seconds.

Table 14 — Formula cheat-sheet

Quantity	Formula	Notes
Ohm’s law	V = I × R	and I = V/R, R = V/I
Power dissipated	P = I²R = V²/R = V × I	the heat the part must shed
Series resistance	R = R₁ + R₂ + … + Rₙ	values add; total ≥ largest
Parallel resistance	1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …	total ≤ smallest
Two in parallel	R = R₁R₂ / (R₁ + R₂)	the product-over-sum shortcut
Voltage divider	Vout = Vin × R₂ / (R₁ + R₂)	R₂ is the lower (output) leg
Johnson–Nyquist noise	Vn = √(4kTRB)	RMS thermal noise; ≈ 0.13 µV for 1 kΩ, 1 Hz, 290 K → scales as √(RB)
Noise density	Vn/√B = √(4kTR)	≈ 4.07 nV/√Hz for 1 kΩ at 290 K
Power derating	Pallow = Prated × (Tmax − Tamb)/(Tmax − Trated)	linear derating above the rated ambient
RC time constant	τ = R × C	charges/discharges to 63.2% in one τ; ~5τ to settle

Quick sanity anchors: a 1 kΩ across 1 V passes 1 mA and dissipates 1 mW; two equal resistors in parallel are half of one; two equal in series are double; a divider of two equal legs halves the input; a 1 kΩ resistor’s broadband thermal noise is about 4 nV/√Hz at room temperature.

14.10 Standards and further reading

The documents that govern the resistor, and the books and application notes that explain it. Standard numbers and titles below were confirmed against the issuing bodies’ catalogues.

14.10.1 Governing standards

Table 15 — Governing standards

Standard	Scope
IEC 60062	Marking codes for resistors and capacitors — colour bands, the R-notation, tolerance and tempco letters, EIA-96.
IEC 60063	Preferred number series for resistors and capacitors — the E3…E192 ladders.
IEC 60115 (series)	Fixed resistors for use in electronic equipment — the generic specification and its sectional parts (60115-1 general, with parts for film, power, chip, and network types).
EIA-96 (EIA/ECA)	The two-digit-plus-letter marking for 1% chip resistors, referenced by IEC 60062.
MIL-PRF-55182	Fixed film resistors, established reliability (the “RN”/“RL” style precision film parts).
MIL-PRF-39007 / -22684 / -55342	Wirewound (established reliability), fixed film (non-ER), and chip resistors respectively.
MIL-STD-202	Test methods for electronic component parts (thermal shock, life, moisture) invoked by the above.

14.10.2 Recommended books

• Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill, The Art of Electronics, 3rd ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2015) — the standard reference; its opening chapter treats the resistor, dividers, and noise at exactly the working-engineer altitude of this dive.
• Charles A. Harper (ed.), Passive Electronic Component Handbook, 2nd ed. (McGraw-Hill) — encyclopaedic coverage of resistor, capacitor, and inductor construction and specification.
• Felix Zandman, Paul-René Simon, and Joseph Szwarc, Resistor Theory and Technology (SciTech/Vishay, 2001) — the definitive monograph on precision resistor physics, by the inventors of bulk-metal foil.
• Morris E. Levin (ed.), Resistors: A Guide to Characterization and Application — component-engineering perspective on selection and reliability.

14.10.3 Manufacturer application notes (real, checkable titles)

• Vishay, “Resistor Basics” and “Power Dissipation and Derating” technical notes; the Bulk Metal Foil technology papers (e.g. the VFR/Z-Foil series notes).
• Bourns, “Chip Resistor Application Notes” and the pulse/surge withstanding guides for its thick-film chip and current-sense lines.
• KOA Speer, “Understanding Resistor Derating” and the current-sensing / high-power thick-film application literature.
• TT Electronics (Welwyn/IRC), “Resistor Marking Codes” and pulse-load / high-voltage resistor application notes.
• Yageo and Panasonic general-purpose chip-resistor datasheets, for the canonical size-versus-power and TCR-versus-value tables reproduced above.

14.11 The resistor in one page

A resistor is a two-terminal part whose single job is to present a fixed, predictable opposition to current, converting the energy it takes into heat and storing none of it. That plainness — no reactance, no memory, the same value for a nanosecond pulse as for an hour of DC — is exactly why it is the most common component in electronics and the reference against which every other part is measured. Its value comes from a material’s resistivity shaped by geometry (R = ρL/A); its quality is measured not by that value but by how little the value moves — with temperature (TCR, in ppm/°C), with voltage (VCR), with time (stability), and by how little noise it adds above the unavoidable Johnson floor. Everything a datasheet says about a resistor is a way of quantifying one of those drifts, and everything a designer pays extra for is a smaller one. The value is chosen from the E-series, marked in bands or SMD code, held to a tolerance, rated for a power that must be derated in the heat, and built — from cheap carbon film to metrology-grade foil — in whatever technology buys the needed stability at the needed price.

This closes the Resistors dive, the third in the passive-components program. Its two companions treat the storing siblings: the Capacitors dive, on energy held in an electric field and the part that resists a change in voltage, and the Coils dive, on energy held in a magnetic field and the part that resists a change in current — both on research.fubsypoly.com, and both illuminating the resistor by contrast. The program continues with the coming Transformers dive, where two coils share a core and the resistor returns in a supporting role — damping, snubbing, bleeding, and setting the working points around the magnetics. The brake, the spring, the flywheel: with all three understood, the rest of electronics is their conversation.